The Potsdam Declaration
Beginning on July 16, 1945 President Truman, Winston Churchill (replaced by Clement Atlee in the later part of the conference), and Joseph Stalin met in Potsdam, Germany to talk about post-war plans. Emerging from World War II, it was clear that the two remaining world powers would be the United States and the Soviet Union. They had united to defeat a common foe, but a growing rivalry between them was becoming evident. One reason General Groves refused to delay Trinity was because Truman wanted to be absolutely sure that the United States had a working atomic bomb. He wanted to intimidate Stalin with the news.
A few days after Trinity, Groves sent a report to Truman detailing that the bomb had exploded with the force of eighteen thousand tons of TNT, the heat of the blast had completely vaporized the steel tower holding it, and for hundreds of feet in all directions, the sand was melted into a green glass. Instruments a mile from the blast site had measured temperatures of 750 degrees Fahrenheit, and no plant or animal within that radius had survived. To put it simply, the bomb worked. It was now up to Truman to decide its fate.
Prior to this point, the American government had decided that the only way to get the Japanese to accept defeat was to launch an all-out invasion of the islands. However, such an invasion would cost the Americans in money, and more importantly, lives. Estimates put the number of American casualties between a quarter of a million and one million. That convinced Truman.
On July 26, the leaders of the United States, Britain, and China issued the "Potsdam Declaration." It described Japan's threatened state, gave terms for her surrender, and stated the Allies' intentions concerning her status after the war. It concluded with the ultimatum, "We call upon the government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces... The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction."
The Japanese government rejected the ultimatum three days later. Their defeat was coming sooner than they expected- in the form of the atomic bomb.
In May 1945, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson organized the Interim Committee. Its members were charged with deciding how the atomic bomb should be used in the war against Japan and considering what role it would play in post-war policy. They determined that the United States should drop the bombs on one or more Japanese cities. The four targets the committee originally selected were Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Kyoto. When it was pointed out that Kyoto was a great Japanese cultural center, it was replaced with Nagasaki.
Beginning on July 16, 1945 President Truman, Winston Churchill (replaced by Clement Atlee in the later part of the conference), and Joseph Stalin met in Potsdam, Germany to talk about post-war plans. Emerging from World War II, it was clear that the two remaining world powers would be the United States and the Soviet Union. They had united to defeat a common foe, but a growing rivalry between them was becoming evident. One reason General Groves refused to delay Trinity was because Truman wanted to be absolutely sure that the United States had a working atomic bomb. He wanted to intimidate Stalin with the news.
A few days after Trinity, Groves sent a report to Truman detailing that the bomb had exploded with the force of eighteen thousand tons of TNT, the heat of the blast had completely vaporized the steel tower holding it, and for hundreds of feet in all directions, the sand was melted into a green glass. Instruments a mile from the blast site had measured temperatures of 750 degrees Fahrenheit, and no plant or animal within that radius had survived. To put it simply, the bomb worked. It was now up to Truman to decide its fate.
Prior to this point, the American government had decided that the only way to get the Japanese to accept defeat was to launch an all-out invasion of the islands. However, such an invasion would cost the Americans in money, and more importantly, lives. Estimates put the number of American casualties between a quarter of a million and one million. That convinced Truman.
On July 26, the leaders of the United States, Britain, and China issued the "Potsdam Declaration." It described Japan's threatened state, gave terms for her surrender, and stated the Allies' intentions concerning her status after the war. It concluded with the ultimatum, "We call upon the government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces... The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction."
The Japanese government rejected the ultimatum three days later. Their defeat was coming sooner than they expected- in the form of the atomic bomb.
In May 1945, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson organized the Interim Committee. Its members were charged with deciding how the atomic bomb should be used in the war against Japan and considering what role it would play in post-war policy. They determined that the United States should drop the bombs on one or more Japanese cities. The four targets the committee originally selected were Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Kyoto. When it was pointed out that Kyoto was a great Japanese cultural center, it was replaced with Nagasaki.
Tinian
Even before the Japanese refused to surrender, the United States military had set in motion plans for an atomic bomb attack on Japan. The 509th Composite Group, under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, had begun their training in Wendover, Utah. They relocated to Tinian, one of the Northern Marianas islands in the Pacific, in May 1945. They trained in B-29 bombers designed specifically to hold and release atomic weapons.
On July, 26 the components for the bomb "Little Boy" arrived at Tinian on board the Indianapolis. Oppenheimer's second-in-command, Robert Serber, flew from Los Alamos to Tinian with a team of physicists to assemble the bomb. Because of my experience assembling the gadget for the test at Trinity, I was selected for the team. On August 1, we assembled the bomb in an air-conditioned hut. It was ten feet long and painted dark gray, and I pointed out that it looked like a small submarine.
Even before the Japanese refused to surrender, the United States military had set in motion plans for an atomic bomb attack on Japan. The 509th Composite Group, under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, had begun their training in Wendover, Utah. They relocated to Tinian, one of the Northern Marianas islands in the Pacific, in May 1945. They trained in B-29 bombers designed specifically to hold and release atomic weapons.
On July, 26 the components for the bomb "Little Boy" arrived at Tinian on board the Indianapolis. Oppenheimer's second-in-command, Robert Serber, flew from Los Alamos to Tinian with a team of physicists to assemble the bomb. Because of my experience assembling the gadget for the test at Trinity, I was selected for the team. On August 1, we assembled the bomb in an air-conditioned hut. It was ten feet long and painted dark gray, and I pointed out that it looked like a small submarine.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
On August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay dropped the uranium bomb we nicknamed "Little Boy" on Hiroshima, Japan. I was back at Los Alamos, and we heard about it from President Truman's official statement. I was in my Tech Area office when a voice announced over the intercom, "Attention please, attention please. One of our units has just been successfully dropped on Japan."
Everyone's initial reaction was elation and excitement. Scientists ran from door to door yelling "Hiroshima has been destroyed!" We had done it- despite all of the catastrophic set-backs that had occurred. Then I began to feel uneasy and nauseous. I thought of all the people who had been killed because of our work. When most of my friends made reservations at restaurants in Santa Fe, I stayed in my dorm to try and distract myself with a book. I couldn't get it off my mind. Sure, the atomic bomb meant the end of the war for the United States, but it meant the beginning of a horrifying war for humanity.
The next morning, I read a note Oppenheimer had received from Washington. It detailed the destruction we had caused in Hiroshima. It was all I could do to not throw up.
Back on Tinian, construction began on the plutonium implosion bomb- "Fat Man." I was extremely thankful not to be involved. On August 9, it was dropped on Nagasaki. This time, there was no initial reaction of pride and excitement, only shame and guilt.
On August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay dropped the uranium bomb we nicknamed "Little Boy" on Hiroshima, Japan. I was back at Los Alamos, and we heard about it from President Truman's official statement. I was in my Tech Area office when a voice announced over the intercom, "Attention please, attention please. One of our units has just been successfully dropped on Japan."
Everyone's initial reaction was elation and excitement. Scientists ran from door to door yelling "Hiroshima has been destroyed!" We had done it- despite all of the catastrophic set-backs that had occurred. Then I began to feel uneasy and nauseous. I thought of all the people who had been killed because of our work. When most of my friends made reservations at restaurants in Santa Fe, I stayed in my dorm to try and distract myself with a book. I couldn't get it off my mind. Sure, the atomic bomb meant the end of the war for the United States, but it meant the beginning of a horrifying war for humanity.
The next morning, I read a note Oppenheimer had received from Washington. It detailed the destruction we had caused in Hiroshima. It was all I could do to not throw up.
Back on Tinian, construction began on the plutonium implosion bomb- "Fat Man." I was extremely thankful not to be involved. On August 9, it was dropped on Nagasaki. This time, there was no initial reaction of pride and excitement, only shame and guilt.